Abstract
Mindfulness meditation has been shown to improve or protect the executive functions of inhibition, shifting, and updating. However, the unique effects of mindfulness meditation are unclear as many studies demonstrating benefit did not randomize participants to groups nor use active controls with equated expectations of cognitive improvement. Additionally, many studies did not observe executive function benefit following mindfulness meditation; it is possible that unmeasured variables (e.g., trait anxiety) moderated the efficacy of these mindfulness inductions. Finally, the state effects of brief mindfulness meditation (< 1 h) on executive functions are not well-understood. In a well-controlled experiment with three separate participant sets, the current study investigated the unique state effects of brief mindfulness meditation on the executive functions of inhibition, shifting, and updating. Trait anxiety was also examined as a potential moderator of these effects. Undergraduates (n = 391) were recruited from a psychological sciences subject pool to examine the effects of brief cognitive training; data from 384 participants were analyzed. Participants were randomly assigned to an inhibition, shifting, or updating task and either 15 min of focused-attention mindfulness meditation or an active control (i.e., drawing) task. Participants completed their executive function task before and after the mindfulness meditation or active control task. There were no unique state effects of brief mindfulness meditation on executive functions (Fs < 1), nor did trait anxiety moderate these effects (p < .42). Given the null results of the current research, novice practitioners should appropriately calibrate their expectations for brief mindfulness meditation impacting executive functions.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
Data is available in Open Science Framework at DOI https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/3BSK7. Executive function tasks, trait anxiety questions, and mindfulness induction can be obtained from their initial sources, cited in current text. Expectations, Manipulation Checks and Demographic Questions, and Group Overviews are available by contacting the author.
Notes
Separate moderation analyses were conducted with trait worry (i.e., cognitive component of STICSA total) as the moderator variable. Attention Control Theory (Eysenck et al. 2007) and some subsequent work (Gustavson et al. 2020; Gustavson and Miyake 2016) suggest that only the worry component of anxiety impacts executive functions and would therefore moderate the effects of mindfulness meditation. Other research suggests trait anxiety generally (but not worry nor physiological symptoms specifically) effect executive functions (Gustavson et al. 2017). These analyses were also null (p > .05).
References
Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: testing and interpreting interactions. Sage Publications, Inc.
Ainsworth, B., Marshall, J. E., Meron, D., Baldwin, D. S., Chadwick, P., Munafò, M. R., & Garner, M. (2015). Evaluating psychological interventions in a novel experimental human model of anxiety. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 63, 117–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2015.02.001.
Allen, M., Dietz, M., Blair, K. S., van Beek, M., Rees, G., Vestergaard-Poulsen, P., Lutz, A., & Roepstorff, A. (2012). Cognitive-affective neural plasticity following active-controlled mindfulness intervention. The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience, 32(44), 15601–15610. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2957-12.2012.
Anālayo, B. (2019). Meditation on the breath: mindfulness and focused attention. Mindfulness, 10, 1684–1691. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-019-01169-9.
Anderson, N. D., Lau, M. A., Segal, Z. V., & Bishop, S. R. (2007). Mindfulness-based stress reduction and attentional control. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy: An International Journal of Theory & Practice, 14(6), 449–463. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.544.
Ashcraft, M. H., & Krause, J. A. (2007). Working memory, math performance, and math anxiety. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 14, 243–248. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03194059.
Baer, R., Crane, C., Miller, E., & Kuyken, W. (2019). Doing no harm in mindfulness-based programs: conceptual issues and empirical findings. Clinical Psychology Review, 71, 101–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2019.01.001.
Banich, M. T. (2009). Executive function: the search for an integrated account. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18(2), 89–94. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01615.x.
Banks, J. B., Welhaf, M. S., & Srour, A. (2015). The protective effects of brief mindfulness meditation training. Consciousness and Cognition, 33, 277–285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2019.01.001.
Baranski, M. F., & Was, C. A. (2018). A more rigorous examination of the effects of mindfulness meditation on working memory capacity. Journal of Cognitive Enhancement, 2(3), 225–239. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41465-018-0064-5.
Baranski, M. F., & Was, C. A. (2019). Can mindfulness meditation improve short-term and long-term academic achievement in a higher-education course? College Teaching, 67(3), 188–195. https://doi.org/10.1080/87567555.2019.1594150.
Basso, J. C., McHale, A., Ende, V., Oberlin, D. J., & Suzuki, W. A. (2019). Brief, daily meditation enhances attention, memory, mood, and emotional regulation in non-experienced meditators. Behavioural Brain Research, 356, 208–220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2018.08.023.
Batchelor, S. (2015). After Buddhism: rethinking the dharma for a secular age. Yale University Press.
Bellinger, D. B., DeCaro, M. S., & Ralston, P. A. (2015). Mindfulness, anxiety, and high-stakes mathematics performance in the laboratory and classroom. Consciousness and Cognition, 37, 123–132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2015.09.001.
Bennett, R. I., Egan, H., Cook, A., & Mantzios, M. (2018). Mindfulness as an intervention for recalling information from a lecture as a measure of academic performance in higher education: a randomized experiment. Higher Education for the Future, 5(1), 75–88. https://doi.org/10.1177/2347631117738649.
Blair, C. (2016). Developmental science and executive function. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 25(1), 3–7. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721415622634.
Brewer, J. A., Davis, J. H., & Goldstein, J. (2012). Why is it so hard to pay attention, or is it? Mindfulness, the factors of awakening and reward-based learning. Mindfulness, 4(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-012-0164-8.
Brewer, J. (2017). The craving mind: from cigarettes to smartphones to love? Why we get hooked and how we can break bad habits. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Britton, W. B., Davis, J. H., Loucks, E. B., Peterson, B., Cullen, B. H., Reuter, L., Rando, A., Rahrig, H., Lipsky, J., & Lindahl, J. R. (2018). Dismantling mindfulness-based cognitive therapy: creation and validation of 8-week focused attention and open monitoring interventions within a 3-armed randomized controlled trial. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 101, 92–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2017.09.010.
Cásedas, L., Pirruccio, V., Vadillo, M. A., et al. (2020). Does mindfulness meditation training enhance executive control? A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials in adults. Mindfulness, 11, 411–424. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-019-01279-4.
Chambers, R., Lo, B. C. Y., & Allen, N. B. (2008). The impact of intensive mindfulness training on attentional control, cognitive style, and affect. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 32(3), 303–322. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-007-9119-0.
Chan, D., & Woollacott, M. (2007). Effects of level of meditation experience on attentional focus: is the efficiency of executive or orientation networks improved? Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine (New York, N.Y.), 13(6), 651–657. https://doi.org/10.1089/acm.2007.7022.
Chen, K. W., Berger, C. C., Manheimer, E., Forde, D., Magidson, J., Dachman, L., & Lejuez, C. W. (2012). Meditative therapies for reducing anxiety: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Depression and Anxiety, 29(7), 545–562. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.21964.
Chiesa, A., Calati, R., & Serretti, A. (2011). Does mindfulness training improve cognitive abilities? A systematic review of neuropsychological findings. Clinical Psychology Review, 31(3), 449–464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2010.11.003.
Clinton, V., Swenseth, M., & Carlson, S. E. (2018). Do mindful breathing exercises benefit reading comprehension? A brief report. Journal of Cognitive Enhancement, 2(3), 305–310. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41465-018-0067-2.
Colzato, L. S., Sellaro, R., Samara, I., Baas, M., & Hommel, B. (2015a). Meditation-induced states predict attentional control over time. Consciousness and Cognition, 37, 57–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2015.08.006.
Colzato, L. S., Sellaro, R., Samara, I., & Hommel, B. (2015b). Meditation-induced cognitive-control states regulate response-conflict adaptation: Evidence from trial-to-trial adjustments in the Simon task. Consciousness and Cognition, 35, 110–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2015.04.012.
Colzato, L. S., van der Wel, P., Sellaro, R., & Hommel, B. (2016). A single bout of meditation biases cognitive control but not attentional focusing: evidence from the global-local task. Consciousness and Cognition, 39, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2015.11.003.
Course-Choi, J., Saville, H., & Derakshan, N. (2017). The effects of adaptive working memory training and mindfulness meditation training on processing efficiency and worry in high worriers. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 89, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2016.11.002.
Creswell, J. D. (2017). Mindfulness interventions. Annual Review of Psychology, 68, 491–516. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-042716-051139.
Davidson, R. J., & Dahl, C. J. (2018). Outstanding challenges in scientific research on mindfulness and meditation. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 13(1), 62–65. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617718358.
Davidson, R. J., & Kaszniak, A. W. (2015). Conceptual and methodological issues in research on mindfulness and meditation. American Psychologist, 70(7), 581–592. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039512.
de Frias, C. M., Dixon, R. A., & Strauss, E. (2006). Structure of four executive functioning tests in healthy older adults. Neuropsychology, 20(2), 206–214. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.20.2.206.
Del Missier, F., Mäntylä, T., & De Bruin, W. B. (2012). Decision-making competence, executive functioning, and general cognitive abilities. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 25(4), 331–351. https://doi.org/10.1002/bdm.731.
Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 135–168. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750.
Dimidjian, S., & Segal, Z. V. (2015). Prospects for a clinical science of mindfulness-based intervention. The American Psychologist, 70(7), 593–620. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039589.
Draheim, C., Hicks, K. L., & Engle, R. W. (2016). Combining reaction time and accuracy: the relationship between working memory capacity and task switching as a case example. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 11(1), 133–155. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691615596990.
Edenfield, T. M., & Saeed, S. A. (2012). An update on mindfulness meditation as a self-help treatment for anxiety and depression. Psychology Research and Behavior Management, 5, 131–141. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S34937.
Eisenbeck, N., Luciano, C., & Valdivia-Salas, S. (2018). Effects of a focused breathing mindfulness exercise on attention, memory, and mood: the importance of task characteristics. Behaviour Change, 35(1), 54–70. https://doi.org/10.1017/bec.2018.9.
Eysenck, M. W. (2010). Attentional control theory of anxiety: recent developments. In A. Gruszka, G. Matthews, & B. Szymura (Eds.), The Springer Series on Human Exceptionality. Handbook of Individual Differences in Cognition: Attention, Memory, and Executive Control (pp. 195–204). Springer Science + Business Media. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1210-7_12.
Eysenck, M. W., & Derakshan, N. (2011). New perspectives in attentional control theory. Personality and Individual Differences, 50(7), 955–960. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.08.019.
Eysenck, M. W., Derakshan, N., Santos, R., & Calvo, M. G. (2007). Anxiety and cognitive performance: attentional control theory. Emotion, 7(2), 336–353. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.7.2.336.
Feldman, G., Greeson, J., & Senville, J. (2010). Differential effects of mindful breathing, progressive muscle relaxation, and loving-kindness meditation on decentering and negative reactions to repetitive thoughts. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 48(10), 1002–1011. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2010.06.006.
Foroughi, C. K., Monfort, S. S., Paczynski, M., McKnight, P. E., & Greenwood, P. M. (2016). Placebo effects in cognitive training. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 113(27), 7470–7474. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1601243113.
Friedman, N. P., & Miyake, A. (2004). The relations among inhibition and interference control functions: a latent-variable analysis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 133(1), 101–135. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.133.1.101.
Friedman, N. P., Miyake, A., Young, S. E., DeFries, J. C., Corley, R. P., & Hewitt, J. K. (2008). Individual differences in executive functions are almost entirely genetic in origin. Journal of Experimental Psychology. General, 137(2), 201–225. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.137.2.201.
Friedman, N. P., & Miyake, A. (2017). Unity and diversity of executive functions: individual differences as a window on cognitive structure. Cortex, 86, 186–204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2016.04.023.
Friedman, N. P., Miyake, A., Altamirano, L. J., Corley, R. P., Young, S. E., Rhea, S. A., & Hewitt, J. K. (2016). Stability and change in executive function abilities from late adolescence to early adulthood: a longitudinal twin study. Developmental Psychology, 52(2), 326–340. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000075.
Gallant, S. N. (2016). Mindfulness meditation practice and executive functioning: breaking down the benefit. Consciousness and Cognition: An International Journal, 40, 116–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2016.01.005.
Goldberg, S. B., Del Re, A. C., Hoyt, W. T., & Davis, J. M. (2014). The secret ingredient in mindfulness interventions? A case for practice quality over quantity. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 61(3), 491–497. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000032.
Gorman, T., & Green, C. (2016). Short-term mindfulness intervention reduces the negative attentional effects associated with heavy media multitasking. Scientific Reports, 6, 24542. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep24542.
Goyal, M., Singh, S., Sibinga, E. M., Gould, N. F., Rowland-Seymour, A., Sharma, R., Berger, Z., Sleicher, D., Maron, D. D., Shihab, H. M., Ranasinghe, P. D., Linn, S., Saha, S., Bass, E. B., & Haythornthwaite, J. A. (2014). Meditation programs for psychological stress and well-being: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Internal Medicine, 174(3), 357–368. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.13018.
Greenberg, J., Romero, V. L., Elkin-Frankston, S., Bezdek, M. A., Schumacher, E. H., & Lazar, S. W. (2019). Reduced interference in working memory following mindfulness training is associated with increases in hippocampal volume. Brain Imaging and Behavior, 13(2), 366–376. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11682-018-9858-4.
Grös, D. F., Antony, M. M., Simms, L. J., & McCabe, R. E. (2007). Psychometric properties of the State-Trait Inventory for Cognitive and Somatic Anxiety (STICSA): comparison to the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI). Psychological Assessment, 19(4), 369–381. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.19.4.369.
Gustavson, D. E., & Miyake, A. (2016). Trait worry is associated with difficulties in working memory updating. Cognition & Emotion, 30(7), 1289–1303. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2015.1060194.
Gustavson, D. E., Altamirano, L. J., Johnson, D. P., Whisman, M. A., & Miyake, A. (2017). Is set shifting really impaired in trait anxiety? Only when switching away from an effortfully established task set. Emotion, 17(1), 88–101. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000212.
Gustavson, D. E., Lurquin, J. H., Michaelson, L. E., Barker, J. E., Carruth, N. P., von Bastian, C. C., & Miyake, A. (2020). Lower general executive function is primarily associated with trait worry: a latent variable analysis of negative thought/affect measures. Emotion, 20(4), 557–571. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000584.
Heeren, A., Van Broeck, N., & Philippot, P. (2009). The effects of mindfulness on executive processes and autobiographical memory specificity. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 47(5), 403–409. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2009.01.017.
Heppner, W. L., & Shirk, S. D. (2018). Mindful moments: a review of brief, low-intensity mindfulness meditation and induced mindful states. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 12(12), e12424. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12424.
Hilt, L. M., Leitzke, B. T., & Pollak, S. D. (2014). Cognitive control and rumination in youth: the importance of emotion. Journal of Experimental Psychopathology, 5(3), 302–313. https://doi.org/10.5127/jep.038113.
Hofmann, S. G., & Gómez, A. F. (2017). Mindfulness-based interventions for anxiety and depression. The Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 40(4), 739–749. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psc.2017.08.008.
Hofmann, W., Schmeichel, B. J., & Baddeley, A. D. (2012). Executive functions and self-regulation. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16(3), 174–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2012.01.006.
Holas, P., & Jankowski, T. (2013). A cognitive perspective on mindfulness. International Journal of Psychology : Journal International de Psychologie, 48(3), 232–243. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207594.2012.658056.
Isbel, B., & Summers, M. J. (2017). Distinguishing the cognitive processes of mindfulness: developing a standardised mindfulness technique for use in longitudinal randomised control trials. Consciousness and Cognition, 52, 75–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2017.04.019.
Jankowski, T., & Holas, P. (2014). Metacognitive model of mindfulness. Consciousness and Cognition, 28, 64–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2014.06.005.
Jensen, C. G., Vangkilde, S., Frokjaer, V., & Hasselbalch, S. G. (2012). Mindfulness training affects attention—or is it attentional effort? Journal of Experimental Psychology. General, 141(1), 106–123. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024931.
Jha, A. P., Krompinger, J., & Baime, M. J. (2007). Mindfulness training modifies subsystems of attention. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 7(2), 109–119. https://doi.org/10.3758/cabn.7.2.109.
Jha, A. P., Denkova, E., Zanesco, A. P., Witkin, J. E., Rooks, J., & Rogers, S. L. (2019). Does mindfulness training help working memory ‘work’ better? Current Opinion in Psychology, 28, 273–278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2019.02.012.
Johnson, S., Gur, R. M., David, Z., & Currier, E. (2015). One-session mindfulness meditation: a randomized controlled study of effects on cognition and mood. Mindfulness, 6(1), 88–98. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-013-0234-6.
Kabat-Zinn, J. (2003). Mindfulness-based interventions in context: past, present, and future. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10(2), 144–156. https://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy/bpg016.
Karr, J. E., Areshenkoff, C. N., Rast, P., Hofer, S. M., Iverson, G. L., & Garcia-Barrera, M. A. (2018). The unity and diversity of executive functions: a systematic review and re-analysis of latent variable studies. Psychological Bulletin, 144(11), 1147–1185. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000160.
Kiken, L. G., Garland, E. L., Bluth, K., Palsson, O. S., & Gaylord, S. A. (2015). From a state to a trait: trajectories of state mindfulness in meditation during intervention predict changes in trait mindfulness. Personality and Individual Differences, 81, 41–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.12.044.
Kumari, V., Antonova, E., Wright, B., Hamid, A., Hernandez, E. M., Schmechtig, A., & Ettinger, U. (2017). The mindful eye: smooth pursuit and saccadic eye movements in meditators and non-meditators. Consciousness and Cognition, 48, 66–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2016.10.008.
Latzman, R. D., Elkovitch, N., Young, J., & Clark, L. A. (2010). The contribution of executive functioning to academic achievement among male adolescents. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 32(5), 455–462. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803390903164363.
Lawson, G. M., & Farah, M. J. (2015). Executive function as a mediator between SES and academic achievement throughout childhood. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 41(1), 94–104. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025415603489.
Lee, J. K., & Orsillo, S. M. (2014). Investigating cognitive flexibility as a potential mechanism of mindfulness in Generalized Anxiety Disorder. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 45(1), 208–216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2013.10.008.
Levinson, D. B., Stoll, E. L., Kindy, S. D., Merry, H. L., & Davidson, R. J. (2014). A mind you can count on: validating breath counting as a behavioral measure of mindfulness. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1202. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01202.
Lindsay, E. K., & Creswell, J. D. (2017). Mechanisms of mindfulness training: Monitor and Acceptance Theory (MAT). Clinical Psychology Review, 51, 48–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2016.10.011.
Lindsay, E. K., & Creswell, J. D. (2019). Mindfulness, acceptance, and emotion regulation: perspectives from Monitor and Acceptance Theory (MAT). Current Opinion in Psychology, 28, 120–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2018.12.004.
Lomas, T. (2017). Recontextualizing mindfulness: Theravada Buddhist perspectives on the ethical and spiritual dimensions of awareness. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 9(2), 209–219. https://doi.org/10.1037/rel0000080.
Lutz, A., Slagter, H. A., Dunne, J. D., & Davidson, R. J. (2008). Attention regulation and monitoring in meditation. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 12(4), 163–169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2008.01.005.
Lutz, A., Jha, A. P., Dunne, J. D., & Saron, C. D. (2015). Investigating the phenomenological matrix of mindfulness-related practices from a neurocognitive perspective. The American Psychologist, 70(7), 632–658. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039585.
McVay, J. C., & Kane, M. J. (2012). Why does working memory capacity predict variation in reading comprehension? On the influence of mind wandering and executive attention. Journal of Experimental Psychology. General, 141(2), 302–320. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025250.
Melby-Lervåg, M., & Hulme, C. (2013). Is working memory training effective? A meta-analytic review. Developmental Psychology, 49(2), 270–291. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028228.
Miyake, A., & Friedman, N. P. (2012). The nature and organization of individual differences in executive functions: four general conclusions. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21(1), 8–14. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721411429458.
Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “Frontal Lobe” tasks: a latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734.
Moore, A., & Malinowski, P. (2009). Meditation, mindfulness and cognitive flexibility. Consciousness and Cognition, 18(1), 176–186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2008.12.008.
Moynihan, J. A., Chapman, B. P., Klorman, R., Krasner, M. S., Duberstein, P. R., Brown, K. W., & Talbot, N. L. (2013). Mindfulness-based stress reduction for older adults: effects on executive function, frontal alpha asymmetry and immune function. Neuropsychobiology, 68(1), 34–43. https://doi.org/10.1159/000350949.
Mrazek, M. D., Smallwood, J., & Schooler, J. W. (2012). Mindfulness and mind-wandering: finding convergence through opposing constructs. Emotion (Washington, D.C.), 12(3), 442–448. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026678.
Mrazek, M. D., Franklin, M. S., Phillips, D. T., Baird, B., & Schooler, J. W. (2013). Mindfulness training improves working memory capacity and GRE performance while reducing mind wandering. Psychological Science, 24(5), 776–781. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612459659.
Mrazek, M. D., Mooneyham, B. W., & Schooler, J. W. (2014). Insights from quiet minds: the converging fields of mindfulness and mind-wandering. In S. Schmidt & H. Walach (Eds.), Meditation—neuroscientific approaches and philosophical implications. Studies in Neuroscience, Consciousness and Spirituality (Vol. 2). Cham: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-01634-4_13.
Nyklíček, I., & Irrmischer, M. (2017). For whom does mindfulness-based stress reduction work? Moderating effects of personality. Mindfulness, 8(4), 1106–1116. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-017-0687-0.
Oken, B. S., Wahbeh, H., Goodrich, E., Klee, D., Memmott, T., Miller, M., & Fu, R. (2017). Meditation in stressed older adults: improvements in self-rated mental health not paralleled by improvements in cognitive function or physiological measures. Mindfulness, 8(3), 627–638. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-016-0640-7.
Peacock, J. (2014). Sati or mindfulness? Bridging the divide. In M. Bazzano (Ed), After mindfulness (pp. 3–22). Palgrave Macmillan, London.
Prakash, R., Fountain-Zargoza, S., Kramer, A. F., Samimy, S., & Wegman, J. (2018, December 9). Mindfulness and attention: current state-of-affairs and future considerations. https://doi.org/10.31231/osf.io/8p3qv.
Quach, D., Mano, K. E. J., & Alexander, K. (2016). A randomized controlled trial examining the effect of mindfulness meditation on working memory capacity in adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 58(5), 489–496. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2015.09.024.
Ramsburg, J. T., & Youmans, R. J. (2014). Meditation in the higher-education classroom: meditation training improves student knowledge retention during lectures. Mindfulness, 5(4), 431–441. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-013-0199-5.
Ree, M., French, D., MacLeod, C., & Locke, V. (2008). Distinguishing cognitive and somatic dimensions of state and trait anxiety: development and validation of the State-Trait Inventory for Cognitive and Somatic Anxiety (STICSA). Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 36(3), 313–332. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1352465808004232.
Rojiani, R., Santoyo, J. F., Rahrig, H., Roth, H. D., & Britton, W. B. (2017). Women benefit more than men in response to college-based meditation training. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 551. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00551.
Sahdra, B. K., MacLean, K. A., Ferrer, E., Shaver, P. R., Rosenberg, E. L., Jacobs, T. L., Zanesco, A. P., King, B. G., Aichele, S. R., Bridwell, D. A., Mangun, G. R., Lavy, S., Wallace, B. A., & Saron, C. D. (2011). Enhanced response inhibition during intensive meditation training predicts improvements in self-reported adaptive socioemotional functioning. Emotion, 11(2), 299–312. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022764.
Sedlmeier, P., Eberth, J., Schwarz, M., Zimmermann, D., Haarig, F., Jaeger, S., & Kunze, S. (2012). The psychological effects of meditation: a meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 138(6), 1139–1171. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028168.
Sedlmeier, P., Loße, C., & Quasten, L. C. (2018). Psychological effects of meditation for healthy practitioners: an update. Mindfulness, 9, 371–387. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-017-0780-4.
Seli, P., Kane, M. J., Metzinger, T., Smallwood, J., Schacter, D. L., Maillet, D., Schooler, J. W., & Smilek, D. (2018a). The family-resemblances framework for mind-wandering remains well clad. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 22(11), 959–961. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2018.07.007.
Seli, P., Kane, M. J., Smallwood, J., Schacter, D. L., Maillet, D., Schooler, J. W., & Smilek, D. (2018b). Mind-wandering as a natural kind: a family-resemblances view. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 22(6), 479–490. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2018.03.010.
Sesma, H. W., Mahone, E. M., Levine, T., Eason, S. H., & Cutting, L. E. (2009). The contribution of executive skills to reading comprehension. Child Neuropsychology, 15(3), 232–246. https://doi.org/10.1080/09297040802220029.
Shipstead, Z., Hicks, K. L., & Engle, R. W. (2012a). Cogmed working memory training: does the evidence support the claims? Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 1(3), 185–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2012.06.003.
Shipstead, Z., Redick, T. S., & Engle, R. W. (2012b). Is working memory training effective? Psychological Bulletin, 138(4), 628–654. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027473.
Shipstead, Z., Lindsey, D. R. B., Marshall, R. L., & Engle, R. W. (2014). The mechanisms of working memory capacity: primary memory, secondary memory, and attention control. Journal of Memory and Language, 72(1), 116–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2014.01.004.
Simmons, J. P., Nelson, L. D., & Simonsohn, U. (2011). False-positive psychology: undisclosed flexibility in data collection and analysis allows presenting anything as significant. Psychological Science, 22(11), 1359–1366. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797611417632.
Simons, D. J., Boot, W. R., Charness, N., Gathercole, S. E., Chabris, C. F., Hambrick, D. Z., & Stine-Morrow, E. A. (2016). Do “brain-training” programs work? Psychological science in the Public Interest : A Journal of the American Psychological Society, 17(3), 103–186. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100616661983.
St Clair-Thompson, H. L., & Gathercole, S. E. (2006). Executive functions and achievements in school: Shifting, updating, inhibition, and working memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology (2006, 59(4), 745–759. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470210500162854.
Teper, R., & Inzlicht, M. (2013). Meditation, mindfulness and executive control: the importance of emotional acceptance and brain-based performance monitoring. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 8(1), 85–92. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nss045.
Van Dam, N. T., Gros, D. F., Earleywine, M., & Antony, M. M. (2013). Establishing a trait anxiety threshold that signals likelihood of anxiety disorders. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 26(1), 70–86. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615806.2011.631525.
Van Dam, N. T., van Vugt, M. K., Vago, D. R., Schmalzl, L., Saron, C. D., Olendzki, A., Meissner, T., Lazar, S. W., Kerr, C. E., Gorchov, J., Fox, K., Field, B. A., Britton, W. B., Brefczynski-Lewis, J. A., & Meyer, D. E. (2018). Mind the hype: a critical evaluation and prescriptive agenda for research on mindfulness and meditation. Perspectives on Psychological Science : A Journal of the Association for Psychological Science, 13(1), 36–61. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617709589.
Was, C. A., & Woltz, D. J. (2007). Reexamining the relationship between working memory and comprehension: the role of available long-term memory. Journal of Memory and Language, 56(1), 86–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2006.07.008.
Wenk-Sormaz, H. (2005). Meditation can reduce habitual responding. Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine, 11(2), 42–58.
Whitmer, A. J., & Gotlib, I. H. (2012). An attentional scope model of rumination. Psychological Bulletin, 139(5), 1036–1061. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030923.
Woltz, D. J., & Was, C. A. (2006). Availability of related long-term memory during and after attention focus in working memory. Memory & Cognition, 34(3), 668–684. https://doi.org/10.3758/bf03193587.
Woltz, D. J., & Was, C. A. (2007). Available but unattended conceptual information in working memory: Temporarily active semantic content or persistent memory for prior operations? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 33(1), 155–168. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.33.1.155.
Xu, M., Purdon, C., Seli, P., & Smilek, D. (2017). Mindfulness and mind wandering: the protective effects of brief meditation in anxious individuals. Consciousness and Cognition, 51, 157–165.
Zeidan, F., Johnson, S. K., Diamond, B. J., David, Z., & Goolkasian, P. (2010). Mindfulness meditation improves cognition: evidence of brief mental training. Consciousness and Cognition, 19(2), 597–605. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2010.03.014.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
The author is responsible for the study design, data analysis, and manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The author declares that he has no conflict of interest.
Ethics Approval
This study was performed in line with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. The current research was approved by the institutional review board at the university where the research was conducted.
Consent to Participate
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study. Data was deidentified during analysis and for subsequent publication.
Consent for Publication
Not applicable.
Code Availability
Not applicable.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Appendices
Appendix 1. Brief Mindfulness Training Overview
Mindfulness refers to when you focus your full attention on the present moment in a nonjudgmental way. Mindfulness training is the intentional cultivation and practice of mindfulness. You will practice brief mindfulness training to develop awareness of yourself as well as your environment. You will practice finding a balance between a relaxed state of mind and a highly attentive one.
Being mindful is something you can do at any point during your day, as many times as you would like. You simply take a deep breath, bring your attention to what is happening in the present moment, and observe what is going on in your mind, your body, and your environment.
You will likely notice that your mind will wander during training. Becoming aware of how busy your mind can be is one of the most important aspects of mindfulness training. When your mind has wandered, simply acknowledge the distraction, let the distraction go, and gently bring your attention back to the mindfulness instructions. You simply start over and most importantly, you do not judge yourself or get frustrated; you take it easy on yourself. You can start over as many times as you want. It is part of the training—you are training your mind.
When you practice, sit upright in a comfortable position with your back straight and your feet flat on the floor. Try to incorporate what you do during mindfulness training into other tasks: focus your attention on the present moment without judgment. Reorient your attention back to the present moment when you notice mind-wandering or distraction.
Appendix 2. Brief Cognitive Training Overview
You will practice brief cognitive training to develop your abilities across a range of tasks. By engaging in cognitive training, you may be able to improve your cognitive functioning. This may occur not only for the tasks you practice with, but may also transfer to other nonpracticed tasks.
Try your best to be fully engaged in each task and complete it to the best of your current abilities. The task you will be training on involves skills and abilities you will likely find useful outside of the laboratory: memory, attention, motor control, and visual scanning. In your current training task, you will be combining these abilities in a simple drawing task. By “working” each ability during the task, these abilities may improve in their effectiveness and you’ll see benefits on other tasks. For example, training your memory to keep things in mind will help you finish your drawing task quicker, and may carry over into other benefits like remembering items at the grocery store. Or, getting more efficient in visual scanning may aid your completion of the drawing task as well as becoming better able to quickly navigate spatial displays in your environment.
Work as quickly and as accurately as possible, but do not rush. Do not be discouraged if a task seems difficult. The abilities you develop during cognitive training may carry over into unpracticed tasks. Try to incorporate what you do during training into other tasks: be engaged and improve performance when possible.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Baranski, M.F.S. No State Effects of Brief Mindfulness Meditation on the Executive Functions of Inhibition, Shifting, and Updating. J Cogn Enhanc 5, 311–329 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41465-020-00198-w
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s41465-020-00198-w